Foregrounding as the process of word formation.

Foregrounding is a technique within literary works whereby authors creates ‘defamiliarization’ through linguistic dislocation that draws readers’ attention to the strangeness of the word or context (in a literary work). The term defamiliarization here refers to creation of something with which people aren’t actually familiar with; something that doesn’t falls in the age old followed pattern and methodology of the literary writing. It is an act of making something stand out of the usual surrounding of words and convey a distinctively separate meaning. Foregrounding functions in correlation to the background and clarifies the background meaning and thus the whole context. However in terms to the literary works things somewhat gets symbolic; by symbolic it is meant that they turn more figurative than precise, exact and direct. Their meanings are to be understood in reference to the context they are written, i.e. to be interpreted in the organic unity of the entire literary text.
This process which helps understand the meaning of the literary works (especially poetry)  is called ‘foregrounding’, where some pieces of information are prioritised more than the other one. The information prioritised are called the ‘foregrounded’, whose meanings stand out and are remembered; and the ones that have their meaning hidden behind the foregrounded and meaning merged into the general scene are ‘backgrounded’ information; as for instance in the poetry where there are foregrounded meanings of the text given/written.  The foregrounded text provides logical connection betwixt what comes afore and later. These foregrounded words however are sneaking tremendously into the day-to-day used language. Foregrounding doesn’t solely functions on its own, rather uses some devices to perform its functioning, which are:

Parallelism: - Parallel constructions are the ones wherein one structure seems equivalent or parallel to one another but the meaning of the two structures are rather belied. It is the manifestation of antithesis, consisting of phrases or sentences of similar construction and meaning placed alongside to balance each other. There are two major ways of parallelism:
   Grammatical Parallelism: - It is done by placing the words with similar or rather same number of syllables or structure together in coordination. The grammatical parallelism may procure both, the similar or the contradictory meaning of the alongside used words. The basic structural construct is based on the use of rhyme like cold, behold or gratitude, servitude etc or words repetition like Kills, kills or parallels in rhythm or parallels in grammatical structure etc.
   Phonological Parallelism: - This foregrounding creates a parallel structure phonologically. The foregrounding via this comprises of phonologically similar structures side by side creating foregrounding in multiple ways such as via use of alliteration, internal rhyme, meter and other forms of rhythmic pattern along with vowel sounds with or without rhyme e and the use of back and front vowels helps creation of phonological parallelism. They are built on the potential of a language and consequent in greater regularity in the language patterning compared to normal one in the flow of ordinary speech hence drawing our greater attention. Examples: →We’re the hollow men (The Hollow Men: T.S. Eliot)
The word hollow, instead of being used literally, has been used symbolically and is representative of the lack of feelings within those men for some reason.
→Tyger Tyger, burning bright,
In the forest of the night; (The Tyger: William Blake)
The word tiger is written differently to grab attention of the word along with the rhyme alliteration is used to balance one line with the other.

Deviation: - As the name itself suggests, this foregrounding is the deviation from the normal set of rules and orthodox methods of literary writing substituted with that of the newly devised, unique and different methodology. They are the unexpected irregularity in the literary work. Literary texts written via deviation evolve to develop a new and broader prospective of not just fathoming but presenting the ideas and thoughts via literary works.
Examples: →Wou’d you your writings to some Palate fit (Alexander Pope: Couplet on Wit)
The way of sentence construction is indicative of something amiss after the word ‘you’ which if simply put suggests a simple question ‘would you let your writings to fit in a palate?’
→Some few in that (Alexander Pope: An Essay on Criticism
The word ‘few’ regardless being a quantitative adjective has been used as verb to highlight the fact of some people’s skill in deceit and misleading.
       Thus conclusively foregrounding is hence the presentation and portrayal of ideas and thoughts in a distinctively unique, different and unorthodox ways and patterns of literary writings.

Cheif characteristics of Human Language which are absent in animals.

Human growth and evolution greatly surpasses that of entire animal kingdom in numerous ways. Unlike the animals they possess an entire linguistic framework that forms their communication whether it is oral or written. This linguistic growth and development thus facilitates them to have broader and better communicative skill than the other living creatures which is unquestionably result of the massive intellect and knowledge they possess through their greatly developed mind. There are thus numerous attributes that are available in the human communication but almost entirely absent in the animal communication.

Phonemes/ Duality of Sound: The animal community lacks the duality of articulation of speech sounds which is a prominent attribute of humanly articulation. Double articulation means the basic sounds enabling the word formation and hence the communication. Most of the animals use these basic sounds probably just once whereas the humans in their every language possess 30-40 sounds such as a… p… t… k… etc which in their crude form are useless and are thus later combined to form a meaningful word or the sentence and thus creating a duality or double articulation.

Word Formation: Animal language doesn’t have any formation of new words and rather doesn’t even use words for their communication; they just have a single sound pattern that they use in various tones or pitches to convey different feelings or desires. Humans on the other hand are full of words and phrases and sentences to convey their feelings and emotions and thus can express themselves more easily and conveniently than animals owing to the complete absence of word formation ability of the animals in their entire kingdom.

Whimsicality:  The animal system of communication lacks whimsicality owing to the fact that not just they have a limited manner or mode of communication and the limited availability of the sound that they produce; humans on the other hand have an whimsical articulation of the speech sounds and the sounds used for referring to certain objects have in reality no any direct link with the said sound and are rather a humanly objectified things or commodities or reference which may even be shifted to something entirely differently else on their will. This attribute is absent in the animal communication and they have no any whimsical articulation of sound, rather certain limited sounds (depending upon the species) used for some limited purposes.

Patterning: Patterning refers to the formation of words or sentences based on certain rules and guidelines and since the animals entirely lack the phonetics and the ability to create new words, the patterning is yet another thing absent in the animal kingdom.

Displacement: It refers to the phenomenon of expressing via language the absent things in the very same way as one would do the things present before him. Simply put, it represents the idea or view expressed by humans about various things or experienced gain by them differently at different times and places and expressing them in such a manner that the listener may not just understand  it but also frame a mental picture of that thought or ideas as if it’s their own experience. This however is not possible with the animals who can't really communicate  their past experiences or feelings and emotions until they come forth in the present again and that too not as the humans. They just can react the very same way as previously done by listening to some specific words or sounds in the present time acting as a form of stimulus to trigger the feelings of the past experiences as conveniently as humans.

Creativity: Human beings owing to their linguistic ability also possess language creativity which is almost absent in the animals. Although animals do produce some varied kind of sounds which may seem creative for an instance but actually are just the variation of same sound they articulate unlike the humans who are not just creative in articulating different kinds o f sounds but also creating different kinds of words and phrases even those that never ever existed; this’ the reason they’re able to name the sounds produced by different animals or other living species.

Indianization of English & the devices used in the process of Indianization.

Intro:- English has never been the native language of India. Regardless it's cumulative usage across the country almost supersedes eighty million people and that too in a country with nineteen other national languages along with numerous dialects are spoken across the country. The root of English in India can be traced back to 1600AD dated 31st December when few English merchants were granted charter by Queen Elizabeth I for a monopolistic trade with India and East; since the purpose at first was solely trade so mere influx of some English & Indian words across both languages for trading communication. But gradually with annexation of Indian princely states it became language of education in India in 1835 and was made the official language of then govt. in 1837 thus marking the ratification of English in India.
Indianization of English is the process through which the form of English is changed, altered or rather modified with the view to make it more conveniently acceptable and useable for Indian speakers or users. This process involves not just change in any of the communicative form of English rather both the communicative forms viz. oral and written. The oral change involves primarily the change in the way of pronunciation i.e. accent of the said language which in India, since it is a country of diversified language, related to the accent of the regional or state vise (native) language used by the Indian English speakers. Along with, the change also involves use of pidgins at times to enable a convenient means of communication. The varied changes in the language i.e. English since involves prominently the oral changes thus makes it a more complex task than it may seem and hence involves use of some instruments or devices of change to make it more apt and valid, which are as under:

Language of the country :- The major device or tools in Indianization of English are the major language of India viz. Hindi &Urdu which adds up many words of in English language; so are the words of some other languages giving their minor contribution to the language. For instance words like Satyagrah, Dhoti, Pundit, Bandh, Dharna etc are now the part of English language.

Translation:-Translation is the establishment of similar equality or equivalent words of one language into the other one so as to form a language or linguistic correlation amongst them. For instance the words like, god-love, salt-spoiler have been translated into their equivalents as iswar prem and namak-haram respectively.

Shift/ Borrowing :- The Indianisation of English via shift encompasses following aspects, the shifting words may deviate grammatically from American and British words formation, they may involve loan shifts from Indian language and they as well may have some phrases used in English which actually are solely part of Indian Cultural Context.

Impact of the socio cultural norms :-The Indianization of English differs largely form the native English and differ in the choices of words, imagery, nuances of meaning and the communication strategy of the words weather oral or verbal and very clearly posses English flavour.

Psychology/ Reduction of Incongruence or Misfit :- The use of Indian English on day-to-day basis consequently led to a simplified understanding of the context hence making language easier, simpler and easily adaptable and highly effective to catch attention.

Difference between Jacobean Drama and Elizabethan Drama

Difference between Jacobean Drama and Elizabethan Drama

Elizabethan era refers to the era of Queen Elizabeth which was from 1562-1642. The dramas and the dramatic works that were created and performed during this era are known as Elizabethan drama. The Elizabethan era compares several renowned and well known dramatic works by renowned dramatists. The major and significant playwrights of the period were Christopher Marlow (1564-1593), Shakespeare (1564-1616), Peele (1558-1597), Lyly (1554-1606) and Greene (1560-1592). It is entirely unquestionable issue to regard Shakespeare as the greatest dramatist of not just the Elizabethan era but of all the times throughout. But before going to Shakespeare several others features and aspects of the age are to be taken into consideration along with many other significant and contemporary playwrights of the period.

Beginning and the features: In the beginning of the Elizabeth age the drama was in struggling into its maturity unlike the early period in which the drama was scholarly and aristocratic in authority. The dramas of the Elizabethan era were largely dependent upon the remarkable imagination of the dramatists and their great skill of great writing. Thus the dramas of the Elizabethan era had emphasis entirely not just upon the dramas that were appreciated by the public but also were socially acceptable through their language and content. As such the language of the dramatists was very refined and standard backed up by sensation.

        Dramatic Progress:  With the shift of drama from religious to a secular function in society playwrights and poets were among the leading artists of the age. Towards the end of the seventeenth century the popularity and progress of drama kept on increasing throughout the time. Thus the dramatic works of various renowned playwrights viz. William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlow, Robert Greene, John Lyly and Thomas Lodge etc gained very profound fame.

        Comedy of Manner: One of the prominent features of the Elizabeth feature of the Elizabethan drama was ‘Comedy of Manner’. In this the social manners of the contemporary society were highlighted by the playwrights. The characters of the dramas were portrayed as the true representatives of the entire age. The playwrights in this age were concerned with highlighting the follies and vices of the sophisticated society in a very amusing manner; although their description acquired a bit of exaggeration but yet they were successful in conveying their idea thus attracting huge number of crowd audience to the theatre. Ex William Shakespeare’s ‘As You Like It, Merchant of Venice etc.

        Dramatic Works: Amongst the renowned dramatic works was Christopher Marlow’s ‘Turbulaine the Great’ (1857), Jew of Malta (1589), and Dr Fantus, Thomas Keate’s ‘The Spanish Tragedy, proving a roaring success became ‘exemplar of the Elizabethan Revenge’ tradition. The incomparable works of Shakespeare including Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello etc, along with George Peele’s ‘The Chronicles of Edward I (1590), Marlow’s ‘Edward II’, ‘The Massacre of Paris’ etc.

     JACOBEAN ERA had its beginning marked by the Elizabethan dramas falling into neglect in around 16^th century. The famous dramatists of the Elizabethan era were taken over by that of Jacobean era. The famous and renowned dramatists of the era were Ben Johnson, John Marsh (1575-1634), Thomas Middleton (1570-162- ), George Champman (1539-1634), Francis Beaumont (1584-1616) and John Fletcher (1579-1625).

        Features: The Jacobean dramatists undertook to more realistic way of writing. They enormously enhanced the sensational level of writing within their dramatic work. Consequently the dramatic works of the Jacobean age gained the description and sequences of murder, blood, loot and many such criminal sequences became a casual part of the Jacobean dramatic writings. The Shakespeare contemporaries like Beaumont and Fletcher were amongst the prominent ones to do this in their plays. The standard and the classicism of dramas established in the Elizabethan era started getting a downfall as the primary focus of the dramatists shifted towards producing evil and licentious scheme for their own sake making the character and situation immortal to the extent that the stage became frivolous, bad and improper representation of the dramatic actions, thus making drama of cheap nature and quality.

        Divisions: Unlike the Elizabethan age, the Jacobean era had dramas divided into two classes; one were those dramatists who were of the Elizabethan era and the others were the dramatists of the Jacobean era. They were divided as:

1.    The dramatists of the Old School, comprising of Decker Heywood, Webster, Fletcher, Beaumont, Fletcher.

2.   The Satiric group consisting of Chapman, Johnson, Marston, Middleton and Tourneur.

These groups of satiric play especially Ben Johnson were fond of mocking the old school dramatists. He had lack of sympathy in portrayal of both life and character.

        Comedy of Humor: Unlike the Elizabethan age the Jacobean age having an entirely identical satirical group had also the comedy of humour. The comedy of humour mainly deals with the oddities of the characters i.e. the odd features and characteristics of the character. It represented and threw a whimsical and shadow over the life of the character. Also the aim of the playwrights is to have in the character, a dominance of humor in their personality. Some prominent examples of Comedy of Humor are Ben Johnson’s ‘Every Man In His Humor’ (1598), ‘The Alchemist’, ‘Every Man Out of His Humor’ (1599).

     Dramatic Works: The great dramatic works of the Jacobean era were Thomas Dekker’s ‘The Shoemaker’s Holiday, Thomas Heywood’s ‘A Woman Killed with Kindness’, John Webster is famous for his two renowned plays ‘The White Devil’ and ‘The Duchess of the Malfi’. Among the other plays the Philaster and the ‘Maid’s Tragedy’ were amongst the prominent ones.

Thus it can be fairly concluded that the Elizabethan and Jacobean dramas hold a considerate differences and distinctions amongst themselves.

ARISTOTLE’S CONCEPT OF COMPLEX PLOT

Aristotle’s concept of plot is entirely based and dependent upon his concept of tragedy. The reason being, his concept of plot is a constituent of his concept over tragedy of which Plot is also one of the five constituent. Thus according to Aristotle tragedy means “Imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude, in a language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the separate kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action not of narrative; through pity and fear affecting the proper catharsis of these emotions.” This concept of tragedy states its six constituents viz. plot, character, thought, diction, melody and spectacle.

        So the term plot, as a constituent of the tragedy refers to a component that determines the meaning of the play. According to Aristotle plot means “the arrangements of the incidents.” i.e. the ways and sequences are presented in the story. Aristotle divided the plots into two categories viz. ‘Simple Plot’ and ‘Complex Plot’. Of this, the simple plot he stated as an action which is continuous and one, is called Simple Plot. Complex Plot on the other hand was given quiet special treatment by Aristotle. According to him the complex plot consists of either ‘Peripeteia’ or ‘the reversal of intention’ and ‘Anagnorisis’ or ‘recognition’ connected with ‘catastrophe’. In order to properly understand complex plot, both of these constituents are to be given due consideration.

        Peripeteia: According to Aristotle, Peripeteia occurs when a character performs an action and this becomes the cause of giving rise to an effect which is contrary of that effect which he intends to produce. In other words, it is the sudden reversal or inversion of desired effect which were supposed and expected to occur. The English form of Peripeteia is Peripety. Aristotle defines Peripeteia as “A change by which actions veers round in its opposite subject always to our rules of probability or necessity.” Example, In Hamlet it occurs when Hamlet draws the sword out of avenge from Claudius against his father’s murder but hesitates seeing him praying and believing that he would go to heaven if he’s killed now.

        The reversal of the situation or the change of fortune form the hero should occur in the manner which is contrary of what has been expected by the audience which is equally surprising but is still a justifiable consequence or the effect of the preceding cause, responsible for undergoing such effect. According to Aristotle Peripeteia along with discovery is more effective when the reversal that occurs in drama is negative. Yet Peripeteia is not confined to only form of being negative. It can be equally positive as negative or vice-versa. Peripeteia consequently leads to anagnorisis or the discovery of the true facts. Soon after Peripeteia a new discovery or revelation (termed as anagnorisis) takes place.

The termed being a Greek one, in its Greek sense also means recognition, not only of a person but also of what that person represented. For instance if the protagonist who faces the situation of Peripeteia is further, revealed of the anagnorisis or the ultimate truth after the truth that he knew turns out to be contrary. Finally it is a perception that results in an insight with the hero, often revealing his relation with the antagonistic character within Aristotelian tragedy. (In Aristotelian tragedy it was the discovery of one’s own identity or true character of someone else’s identity or true nature by tragic hero). Thus Anagnorisis in Aristotle’s words can be concluded as a change from ignorance to knowledge producing love or hate between the persons destined by the poor or proper fortune. Ex. Oedipus, despite his attempt of changing his fate of killing his father and marrying his mother, does the same in ignorance and later on the truth is revealed to him, which turns out to be entirely unexpected. Thus anagnorisis is caused as a result of Peripeteia.

Conclusively, both these factors or concepts of peripety and anagnorisis being the major components of a complex plot hence declaring it a complex situation which progresses in a very complicated manner and further turns out to be contrary and inverse of as it should have been in actual as of peripeteia. Thus consequently the anagnorisis occurs which reveals the true fact (after the inversion of the situation) which was unknown and in  its stead something else was known; now after the other thing has turned out wrong the actual truth is revealed or disclosed later and thus forming or making the plot very complex. Now at last after the actual situation turns out to be contrary or distinct of previous situation truth has also to be revealed which is done through anagnorisis. Thus consequently making the plot complicated and complex. Thus, this is the concept of the complex plot in respect of Aristotle’s concept of the complex plot.

Derivation and Inflection

DERIVATION

Derivation is the process of formation of a new word from that of some existing words as the base or the root of this newly formed words. The process involved in the formation of the new word is addition of morpheme in the form of an affix (either prefix or suffix or both sometimes).The addition of the word or the affix takes place to the words of one lexical category (part of speech) and changes the words of some distinct and different category. For instance, the suffix ‘ly’, changes or transforms an adjective ‘true’ into an adverb ‘truly’ or ‘able’ as a suffix changes the word ‘presume’ to ‘presumable’; so on and so forth.

            Derivation has some characteristics, discussed under:

Ø Derivation on its occurrence brings about a great change in the meaning compared to the original or the root word.

Ø It often results in the grammatical change or the change of grammatical category of the word.

Ø Derivation is not an obligatory process.

Ø It although results in the idiosyncratic meaning of the transformed word.

Some examples are discussed below:

Ø Kind becomes the root word of Kindness.

Ø Joyful for the word Joy

English Derivative Pattern and their Suffixes:-

Noun to Verb: ‘fy’: glory-glorify

Verb to Noun(agent): ‘er: write- writer

Verb to Noun(abstract): ‘ance’: deliver-deliverance

Noun to Adjective :’al’: creation-creational

Adjective to Noun:- ‘ness’: Slow-Slowness

Verb to Adjective: ‘able’-drink-drinkable

Adjective to Verb: ‘ise’: Modern-modernise

Adjective to Adjective:- ‘ish’- black-blackish

Adjective to Adverb:- ‘ly’- person-personally

            However derivation is not necessary to undertake a change of form but rather the same word can be used for two purposes viz. Telephone as noun and to Telephone where it’s used as a verb. Also derivation resulting in a noun may be called Nominalization, involving the use an affix (Happy-happiness, employ-employee)

INFLECTION

Inflection in general refers to the nuance or the variety of same word. It is the grammatical variant of the same word which results in the change of  the form of a word purposed to express a grammatical function or attribute such as tense, person, gender, case etc by means of adding one or two affixes; or the modification of the same word to express different grammatical categories viz. gender, tense etc. In English inflection is indicated in nouns (girl, girls, girls‘), third person singular present tense ( i, you, we, they buy; he buys), past tense (we walked, we walk), aspect ( i have called, I am calling) and degree:-comparatives (big, bigger, biggest). Also some inflection, changes occur as in, sing, sang, sung or goose, geese. Unlike derivation inflection doesn’t change the lexical or grammatical category of the word. In terms of their position, they occur outside the derivational affixes and affect the information such as number, gender or aspect. Inflective words are highly productive in nature as they result in the formation or generation of the words of the same type and further lead to the creation of the forms that are fully grounded and able to be integrated into discourse.

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Theory of Impersonality

Theory of impersonality refers to the concept of impersonal relationship between a man as a poet and as a general man. According to the renderer of this concept T.S.Eliot, a poet should have two distinct personalities and he as a poet should uphold no any relation with that of his personal self while composing his poetry. That is to say the poet entirely disregards the autobiographical nature of the poetry as was prevalent in the romantic age. Eliot says that while composing poetry a poet shouldn’t have a personal self or being which is backed up by several personal experiences or backgrounds and whilst composing poetry he shouldn’t be even slightly influenced by any of his personal, historical experiences that may lay even a minimal impact over his poetic composition. The personal experiences are not to be associated with the theme of the poetic composition but rather to be kept identical and separate from it. As of this reason he even regards two constituents of composing the poetry; the personal elements, i.e. the feelings and emotions of the poet and the other one being ‘the impersonal element’ which is the ‘tradition’ or the accumulated knowledge, information and wisdom acquired from the past by the poet. These two elements fuse together to form a new thing, which is called poem.

            The emotions and feelings however uphold an inferior or lower place to thought and feelings and according to Eliot poetry instead of being an expression of emotions is rather an escape from the personal emotions. The primary reason being, if the emotion that the poet uses, which is moreover his personal emotion, to write his poetry and if he’s intermingling them with his poetry then he is making his work rather more personal than general. Moreover the personal experiences that he has are resultants of some emotions that he had previously experienced as a distinct man than a poet; these emotions are since his own and so are his words that he uses in expressing those emotions of his. These words however since considers his personal emotions may or may not concern the readers.

A poetic composition by a poet, in general, is done for the masses or the readers to read for masses to read for and not for his own personal sake to attain an emotional balance by giving words to his contained unexpressed emotions. His emotions are, on the other hand, not necessary to be the same as that of the readers and thus the poet stands a very low chance of sympathy or empathy through it, which according to Eliot is highly likely and thus becomes the basis of his rejection of same personality or being working as a poet and himself instead of keeping both the personalities estranged as far as practicable. Also, the composition based on own personal feelings mightn’t yield enough readers to the poetry thus consequently harming and hampering the person’s status as a poet. Thus Eliot propounded this theory to distinguish both the personalities to make poems more artistic than emotional works.